Xanthine oxidoreductase in cancer: more than a differentiation marker

Abstract

Human xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) catalyzes the last two steps of purine catabolism and is present in two interconvertible forms, which may utilize O₂ or NAD⁺ as electron acceptors. In addition to uric acid, XOR products may comprise reactive oxygen and nitrogen species that have many biologic effects, including inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and cytotoxicity, as well as mutagenesis and induction of proliferation. XOR is strictly modulated at the transcriptional and post-translational levels, and its expression and activity are highly variable in cancer. Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) expression has been negatively associated with a high malignity grade and a worse prognosis in neoplasms of the breast, liver, gastrointestinal tract, and kidney, which normally express a high level of XOR protein. However, the level of XOR expression may be associated with a worse outcome in cancer of low XOR-expressing cells, in relation to the inflammatory response elicited through the tissue damage induced by tumor growth. Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) has been implicated in the process of oncogenesis either directly because it is able to catalyze the metabolic activation of carcinogenic substances or indirectly through the action of XOR-derived reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. The role of uric acid is characterized by both oxidant and antioxidant action; thus, it is still debatable whether control of uricemia may be helpful to improve the outcomes of tumor illness.

Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) activity precludes the salvage pathway of purine nucleotides and may oxidize anticancer drugs and carcinogen substances. In cancer, XOR is upregulated in low-, and downregulated in high-, XOR-expressing tissues. XOR-derived reactive oxygen (ROS) and nitrogen (RNS) species are implicated in oncogenesis because they may induce inflammation, mutagenesis, and proliferation.

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